The representation of Japanese Cinema as a national Cinema, through the duality of Miyazaki’s “Spirited Away” (2001)
Miyazaki Hayao’s Spirited Away (2001), or Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi, is a prime example of the duality found within Japanese Cinema. Multiple levels of duality within the film demonstrate Miyazaki’s ability to absorb Western influences and illuminate how they affect Japanese society. By analysing intertextual elements that are shared with Walt Disney’s Alice in Wonderland (1951) and transnational aspects within the two films, the distribution and reception in Japan and outside of it, and the (symbolic) duality demonstrated throughout the film, this essay will attempt a nuanced unpicking of positive influences and criticisms of the admixture of Western and Japanese culture, which when combined create a truly individual national cinema.
1. “The Disney of Japan”
It is no coincidence that Studio Ghibli, which has been called “the Disney of Japan”, would take influence from Disney films. Disney, after all, is undoubtedly the most influential animated film producer in the world. However, despite Disney’s influence, it is important to note how divergent the two studios’ recent production techniques are. An immediately apparent difference arises if we consider the style of Disney’s contemporaneous 2001 release, Pixar’s Monsters Inc (2001), which used solely Computer-Generated Imagery (CGI). While Spirited Away was primarily hand-drawn, Ghibli did deploy CGI sparingly. This use of hand-drawn animation comes despite Studio Ghibli being established more recently. Stylistically, therefore, it is more productive to compare its films to older Disney films. As Marcos Centeno (2018: 1) has noted, «There are two methods for establishing a coherent imaginary of national cinema: First, looking outward, beyond its borders, comparing it to other cinemas, highlighting its difference and considering it in terms of its degrees of otherness». With these considerations in mind, this essay will argue that there is a clear influence from Disney’s Alice in Wonderland (1951) on Miyazaki’s Spirited Away, both in terms of its narrative and aesthetic. Both animations feature supernatural elements and the uncanny to paint vivid pictures of other worlds. As Fahmi (2017: 28) explains, both films feature «Portal-quest fantasy [narratives, enabling…] female heroines in the selected animated films to enter unfamiliar worlds full of adventures, noble quests and extraordinary beings and occurrences». In this essay I will argue that these adventures are based on respective national traditions and mythologies. Alice romanticises the rural idyll and nostalgia for the past as portrayed through dreams and imaginary locations, whereas, as Fahmi (2017: 29) states, «Spirited Away (2001) is an emblem of the fusion between ancient and contemporary Japanese culture and traditions». As I will go on to demonstrate, this comparative analysis of the two films’ similarities and differences will prove productive for evaluating national and transnational elements.
In relation to this marriage of the archaic and modern, Centeno (2018: 1) notes that «the idea of Japanese Cinema as a National Cinema started to be articulated in the post-war period through films that were being exported overseas». Spirited Away (2001), despite being made well after the end of World War Two, continues to wrestle with the issues that emerged in the aftermath of the war. This conflicted dynamic can be summarised through the idea of Japanese identity, and how Western commercialism, values and culture fit into that identity. Miyazaki’s film enables the viewer to escape into a traditional Japanese realm represented by: onsens (bathhouses), Shinto deities and Yokai (supernatural beings from Japanese folklore), buildings and clothing. Alice (1951), on the other hand, is an early post-war production and as detailed by Fahmi (2017) «is not simply about a girl’s adventure in a strange and unreal world. It addresses contemporary issues and explores the realm of the unconscious». Similarly, Spirited Away engages its audience with the issues Japan wrestled with in the early 2000’s, such as accelerated consumerism and its increasing effects on the environment.
2. Intertextuality: Alice and Chihiro
Intertextual elements in both films give the two stories strong elements of duality. As Alice (believed to be 7 years old) and Chihiro (10 years old) stand at the precipice of their respective fantasy worlds, both must ingest something in order to enter. In Alice’s case it is a potion that will shrink her, while for Chihiro it is a small berry given to her by Haku (a river spirit in the human realm who once saved Chihiro from drowning), which prevents her from disappearing. Both must pass through portals to begin their adventures in the fantasy world. Alice, once shrunk, becomes physically able to go through the small door into the White Rabbit’s warren. Chihiro, having eaten something from this new world, must cross a traditional Japanese-style bridge that separates the liminal space of the run-down theme park from the spirit world. Miyazaki’s representation of a Chinese food market theme park (possibly based on Jiufen in Taiwan) mirrors the Japanese fascination with other national cultures. Japan has many theme parks based on different countries including Shima Spain Village (Spanish based) and Gluck Kingdom, a now defunct German theme park, that could have been taken from Spirited Away [see Fig. 1]. It could be argued that these theme parks represent a dualistic Japanese attitude towards foreign places. They are interested in the culture, but it remains a shallow interest. Japanese culture overrides any outside influence.
The theme of consumption of (national) food also runs throughout both films. Alice famously portrays the most English of meals, afternoon tea [see Fig. 2]. In Spirited Away, as Susan Napier (2018: 206) states, «nourishment comes across in a variety of intricate and seemingly antithetical ways, as the early scene of Chihiro’s parent’s transformation augurs. Sometimes food appears as bitter medicine, sometimes as comfort cuisine». Chihiro’s parents, corrupted by the indulgent ways of the West, sit down and gorge on Chinese food in the Disneyland-esque theme park outside the bath house, and through this greed metamorphose into pigs. Chihiro, a child, has not yet been completely corrupted and refuses to eat, sparing her from this transformation [see Fig. 3]. Alice, the opposite of Chihiro, indulges as and when she likes throughout the film. She is never invited to drink the potions yet drinks them anyway. She takes biscuits from the White Rabbit’s house without permission. Alice portrays the expectant Western consumer, a position that Chihiro’s parents have adopted.
A further intertextual element occurs between Kaonashi (“No Face”) in Spirited Away and the Cheshire Cat in Alice in Wonderland. Both characters have an apparent obsession with their respective protagonists, an obsession which both hinders and helps the heroines. No Face is fascinated with Chihiro and, at first, he is helpful, offering her cleaning tokens for the baths. However, as the film progresses, this obsession becomes a hinderance until eventually Chihiro takes him in hand [see Fig. 4].
The Cheshire Cat seems similarly preoccupied with Alice, following her throughout the film, alternately assisting and impeding her [see Fig. 5]. They both disappear when there is trouble and reappear to cause more problems. The Cheshire Cat causes problems for Alice when she first meets the Queen of Hearts, carrying out acts of mischief, then appearing and disappearing without attracting attention, causing Alice to face the anger of the Queen. Whereas the Cheshire Cat’s actions can be seen as malicious, the trouble caused by No Face stems from an apparent innocence and desire for acceptance by offering Chihiro gold and food. This duality might be considered in relation to the difference between Japanese and Western cultural traditions. The Cheshire Cat is defined by his big smiling face, a symbol of individuality. No Face, on the other hand, literally has no face and therefore lacks individuality, presenting an allusive symbol of Japanese collectivity, whilst also representing avarice when placed in the corrupting situation that the materialistic bathhouse represents.
3. Distribution and Reception
The distribution of Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi in Japan was handled significantly differently from its distribution in the West. As Rayna Denison (2007: 308) tells us, «Miyazaki Hayao’s films span […] two extremes – from child-friendly narratives featuring cuddly creatures to films that deal with death, war and adult responsibility». This is not something that Western audiences (raised on Disney) are used to in animated features. Due to differing notions as to what an animated film should encompass, in Japan the film broke all box office records, proving the importance of Anime within the medium of film among a broad demographic. Yet «by the time Spirited Away was released in the United States it was being positioned as [exotic or outsider] art worthy of Academy Award-winning status» (Denison 2007: 308). Koichi Iwabuchi (2002: 38) notes that «The most serious shortcoming of the Japanese animation industry […] is a lack of international distribution channels». As Denison explains (2007: 308), in 1996 a «distribution deal [was] struck between Miyazaki’s film company and Disney, his Anime films [becoming] among the most widely available in the world».
However, this distribution deal also led to a “Disneyfication” of his films and in the case of Spirited Away, «The further Miyazaki’s film moved west, towards its American release in September 2002, the more negotiation and change took place» (Denison 2007: 308).
In order to reach a maximum international audience, «Japanese elements were progressively siphoned off or altered» (Denison 2007: 308). Yet as Denison continues to tell us (2007: 310) «Although Sen to Chihiro may have changed to suit its circumstances, it never became the exclusive cultural property of any nation other than Japan». Film critic Xan Brooks (2005: 1) notes that in an attempt to attract as many viewers as possible, Disney «releases Miyazaki films in two formats: a subtitled version for the purists and a dubbed extravaganza for the popcorn crowd».
Due to Spirited Away’s positive reception in the West, Miyazaki won the Oscar for Best Animated Feature Film at the 75th Annual Academy Awards ceremony. Spirited Away won and was nominated for a number of other awards, almost exclusively for the Japanese language version. This is another example of the duality within transnational views of Japanese cinema. As Koichi Iwabuchi (2002: 26) states «Western hegemony, the universal appeal of American popular culture, and prevalence of the English language are no doubt advantageous to Hollywood», yet the Westernisation of Japanese cinema failed to lead to critical success as fanboys generally feel «Foreign programs, […] can be seen as more attractive because they are “exotic”» (Iwabuchi 2002: 26).
Thanks in large part to Studio Ghibli releases, including Spirited Away, Susan Napier (2007: 173) states that «despite its Japanese origin [Anime…], easily crosses boundaries to become a cultural force that may have particular appeal in an increasingly complex transnational world». This has led to a new level of duality within the reception of Anime in the West, which is now considered a singular art form by the original “Fan Boys” and “Early Adopters” —described by Oliver Dew (2007: 61) as spectators who accrue «sub-cultural capital within the fratriarchy […] by ‘adopting’, not merely consuming but investing in, as the source of their social standing» — and Japanese animation (commensurate with Western) by the general cinema going public. As Douglas McGray (2002: 1) advises, «Japan sits on a formidable reserve of soft power, [yet…] it has few means to tap it». This new global acceptance of the Anime genre allows Japan to further spread its influence worldwide.
4. Duality of National and Transnational elements
Multiple layers of duality are revealed by Miyazaki’s creative decisions in Spirited Away. The film’s Japanese title Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi, which roughly translates to “Sen and Chihiro’s strange disappearance” is a good example, demonstrating duality through the identification of the individualistic identities of both Sen and Chihiro, despite them being the same person, thereby giving a clue as to where they might have disappeared to. The word Kamikakushi can be interpreted as mysterious disappearance, yet the Kanji (Chinese characters) for Kamikakushi break down as kami meaning “gods” and kakushi “to conceal”, “hide” or “cover”. This duality reveals two different perspectives for reading the film. The typical everyday human world featuring Chihiro and her mysterious disappearance is doubled by the extraordinary Spirit World featuring Sen’s concealment by the Gods. An underlying theme of the film is Chihiro’s coming of age: she is at the awkward stage of no longer being a child yet is not quite an adult. Many aspects of childhood are coming to an end, and new responsibilities must be embraced, as demonstrated by the opening shot of the film. A first-person point-of-view shot (through Chihiro’s eyes) of a bouquet of flowers and the message written by her friends wishing her well in her new life establishes duality from the outset, in a beginning that is simultaneously an ending. Chihiro is alerted to her new school and grasping the flowers sticks her tongue out at the school, an attempt to hold on to her past and show her contempt for the future. The flowers die soon after, due to Chihiro clutching them too hard, suggesting she cannot cling to childhood forever.
As the film progresses, Chihiro travels to the world of the Gods and becomes Sen: the clear duality between Sen and Chihiro is represented aesthetically, with Rayna Denison (2007: 311) noting that «Chihiro’s clothing is ‘symbolic of her character’s (national) identity». To begin with, as Chihiro, she dresses in western clothing: an oversized T-shirt, shorts, and trainers. Conversely, Sen’s costume is a traditional Japanese Suikan (a traditional piece of formal Japanese clothing). Hybridity is also manifested in her attitude, which reflects «Miyazaki’s reading of contemporary Japan, [as] filled […] with signs of consumerism and personal lethargy» (Dennison 2007: 311). This is demonstrated by Chihiro lying down in the back of the car, moaning and refusing to make the best of the situation. Sen, on the other hand, is hard-working, proactive and the epitome of old Japan. On the way to their new house the family stop next to a Tori gate and some Hokora (small house-shaped shrines) [see Fig. 6] which follows a shot of the family in their Audi with large houses in the background [see Fig. 7 ]. This scene can be read as showing the diminished importance of spiritualism in present-day Japan in comparison with contemporary commercialism. As the car continues, they approach a tunnel but are cut off by a Nimenseki (a sculpted stone depicting a character with two faces on the front and back), on which the faces of good and evil are carved back to back. This example of duality represents a liminal borderland as one face points towards the tunnel and one to the human world. It is never clear which side evil is facing. Once through the tunnel, Chihiro’s parents begin to eat the food of the Gods and the greed of everyday commercialism reveals itself as they metamorphose into pigs.
Sen meets many different characters on her quest, all of whom have dual natures. Haku, for example, can take the form of both human and Dragon in the Spirit World. In the human world, he is a River God. Yubaba and her twin sister Zaniba represent evil and good respectively. No Face performs duality by adjusting to its surroundings. In the bathhouse, a place run according to the dictates of Yubaba’s avarice, it becomes greedy, but in the countryside, with Zaniba it grows contented and helpful. Likewise, the assumed “Stink Spirit” that Sen must clean emerges as a river which has been polluted by the greed of humankind.
Conclusion
Spirited Away can be read as a critique of the accelerated consumerism accompanying Japanese modernity and the Western influence that is beginning to overshadow traditional Japanese values and spiritualism. The duality of Sen and Chihiro symbolise the tension and hybridity between the old and the new. At the end of the film, Sen returns to being Chihiro and is reunited with her Western style clothing, shedding her traditional Suikan. However, as she returns to the human realm, she still wears the hairband given to her by Zeniba. This can be read as signifying the unification and balance of Japanese and Western cultures through shedding the inefficiencies of traditional Japanese formality yet retaining the essence of Japanese cultural otherness. This consolidation could also symbolise the transnational acceptance of Japanese culture as a form of soft power. As Spirited Away demonstrates, Japanese cinema, as an artform, must balance the transnational influences that are frequently being pushed into Japanese culture, yet keep enough of its national identity to retain its status as a truly unique national cinema, transcending its national borders and furthering the influence of Japanese culture across the globe.
Footnotes
[*] This article is one of the results of the Collaborative learning of film analysis in transnational and interuniversity environments project, developed in the academic year 2019/20 among the students of the subject Teoría e historia de los medios audiovisuales of the Degree in Media Communication (Grado en Comunicación Audiovisual, Facultad de Comunicación y Documentación, Universidad de Murcia) and the Japanese Studies Program of the BA Film and Media of the School of Arts of the Birkbeck Collage (University of London).
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